A break for a language lesson

Words are always important to studying any culture. I thought I would take a moment to talk about the origins of some words related to Egypt and Egyptology.

Pharaoh.. From the Egyptian per-ao (the great house). It started as the word for palace but eventually came to mean the person who lived in the great house. Pharaoh wasn't used in the modern definition as a word for the king in Egypt until the 20th dynasty, approximately 1185 BC.

Satellite Map of the Nile Delta

Delta... We call the alluvial area of the Nile river and all rivers Deltas due to the Greek relationship between the mapping of Egypt and the Greek letter Delta, both being triangular. 

Hieroglyph.. from Greek hieros (sacred) and glyphe (carvings) because most hieroglyphs were seen on the walls of temples and other sacred places. Egyptians used the word Medu Neter,  words of the gods.

Cartouche ... from the French word for the paper rolls that the French stored their musket gunpowder in.

Ripper... The idea of a ripper being a murder may be directly related to Ancient Egyptian taboo. Cutting a human body was considered the highest offense, especially the body of the dead, so the person who made the cut into the body to remove the internal organs was called the Ripper. The Ripper was chased away after making the cut with curses and stones thrown at him. 

Pyramid... from the Greek pyramis. Pyramis was a triangular shaped wheat cake the Greeks made.

Hyksos... the word we use for the invaders during the Intermediate Periods. This comes from the Ancient Egyptian word heqa-khasut which means "chiefs of foreign lands". 

Sarcophagus... from the Greek sarx (flesh) and phagos (eating) related to the belief of the Greeks that certain kinds of stones could eat flesh.

The Woman and the Golden Flies

In Ancient Egypt golden flies we given as awards for valor in battle. You could think of them as a medal of honor or a medal of valor in the American military. They were not only given for valor but also persistence against the Hyksos in battle. The horsefly was used because it harassed beasts, a fitting distinction for warriors who drove out invaders.

The interesting thing about these flies is that one at least one occasion they were awarded to women. In Ancient Egypt women were not part of the military so one must wonder how a woman was awarded a fly of valor. It is thought that perhaps as spies or in other matters of subterfuge. It is also possible that the women spurred rebellion or inspired the people to keep up the battle. While it is not certain why they were awarded to the women there is proof that this was the case.


Ahhotep I, Queen of Egypt and mother of Ahmose I. Her name meant "the Moon is Satisfied". She was buried with three golden flies after dying at more than 90 years of age. It is written in a stela from the time period: "She is the one who has accomplished the rites and taken care of Egypt... She has looked after her soldiers, she has guarded her, she has brought back her fugitives and collected together her deserters, she has pacified Upper Egypt and expelled her rebels." suggesting that Queen Ahhotep I rallied her troops and  possibly ministered to the wounded herself during the battle at Thebes to drive out the Hyksos according to Dodson and Hilton's "The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt"

Coffin of Queen Ahhotep I

Egyptian view on prayer and ritual requests

I thought we would take a moment to talk about a subject I am often asked. How did Egyptians use prayer and how did they approach it?

The first thing is that Egyptians didn't ask for things when they prayed or performed a ritual. The belief was that if the right offering was given, the right words were spoken and the right name used that the deity would feel compelled to answer. This was more the idea of respect. I will try to put it into more modern terms.

Say you wanted to borrow your mother's favorite earrings. Instead of  asking outright you do the dishes, fold the laundry, compliment her on how beautiful she looks, make her lunch and then comment about how beautiful those earrings would look with your prom dress hoping she will get the hint and lend them to you.

This is sort of how the Egyptians viewed prayer and ritual. The god or goddess was not directly asked but was honored with respect. Then when the time came the person praying would state something to the effect of... "Wow it would be nice if the harvest would be better this year." From there, the Egyptian praying or performing the ritual would have strong belief that those things performed in honor such as providing offerings, devotionals, complimenting the god or goddess and so on would win them the favor to have their desires met.

There is an additional Egyptian belief that if the practitioner has been proper in their delivery of the prayer or ritual that the god would be compelled by honor to give a gift to the person who was praying. This belief does not guarantee the practitioner will get what they ask for but it does show that some blessing will come from the work. If we go back to the farmer asking for a better harvest this year. Maybe the harvest wouldn't be better but fewer crocodiles would be in the fields or maybe his ducks would produce more ducklings or maybe the price of his produce would increase so he made more money. Blessings come in all manners but there was a precedent that the god would give that which would be most helpful, which is not always what we ask for.

Nefertari offering to Isis

The Last 7 Confessions 36-42

Confession 36. O Ihy who came forth from the Primordial Waters, my voice was not loud.

The primordial waters refer to both Nun and the beginning of creation. Ihy is the god of jubilation and the happiness that emanates from the sound of a sacred rattle. I have not made my voice loud refers to raising one's voice when it is not required to be heard, such as yelling during an argument that shows a loss of control.

Confession 37. O Sistrum Bearer coming forth from Nun, I have not made haughty my voice.

The Sistrum Bearer is either Bast, Sekhmet or Hathor. All three goddesses are associated with the sistrum though the instrument is most often named sacred to Bast. Coming forth from Nun means that the goddess came forth from creation without a creator. All three of these goddess have myths with references to this as well but here Hathor is most often the one without a creator. I have not made my voice haughty, I have not boasted or made myself important only through my words. Arrogance is another way some have taken this confession.

Confession 38. O He-Who-Prospers-the-Common-People who came forth from Asyut, I have not cursed a god.
Asyut is Lycopolis in Upper Egypt. This city is sacred to Anubis and Wepwawet. He-Who-Prospers-the-Common-People might refer to Anubis because he brings prosperity, eternal life, to the common people. It is also possible that this could be another funerary god. Cursing a god not only means direct words but also defaming or going against that which the god holds sacred. 

39. O Uniter of Good who came forth from the Cavern, I have not harmed the rations or place of the gods.
The cavern refers to coming from the Duat. Uniter of Good in this refers to Khepera and his place as Ra who united creation, gods and man in the service of Ma'at. This confession is talking about not destroying the offerings or sacred places of the gods.

Min, god of fertility and travel

40.O Upraised of Head who came forth from the Shrine, I have not stolen the Khenef-cakes from the Blessed.
Upraised of Head is likely the god Min given the image used to show the "person" this title is directed toward. Also, the word for shrine in this text is related to the image of the water which is a common location for the shrines of Min.
Khenef cakes are a traditional offering cake that are sweet. These were left for gods, the dead and other beings as a form of thanks or celebration.

41. O He-Who-Brings-His-Portion who came forth from the Hall of Two Truths, I have not stolen the Hefn-cakes of a youth, nor have I sinned against the god of my town.
The Hall of Two Truths is the hall of Ma'at where judgement takes place. He Who Brings His Portion is Thoth who brings many things to the hall including records and the knowledge of what Hathor, Khnum or Anubis has whispered to the soul at the beginning of life. Hefn-cakes are a treat made for children so this means, more or less, to not neglect children or deny them the same you would have for yourself. Sinning against the town god in modern terms would be the equivalent of sinning against your patron deity. Sin is a convenient word here that is used for understanding of the Western reader. The true interpretation would be closer to not acting against the ideals, realms or sacred powers of that deity.


42. O He-Who-Brightened-the-Land who came forth from the Faiyum, I have not slain sacred cattle
He who comes forth from the Faiyum is usually Sobek. With the crocodile seen as the slayer often enough, it would make sense that you would declare to the crocodile god you have not slain. This goes beyond the direct meaning of killing a sacred cow. It also means neglecting a sacred animal or any other action which would harm it unnecessarily.

Confessions 31-35

Confession 31. O Captain who came forth from Weten, I have not discussed
I have not discussed likely refers to not revealing private matters to uninvolved parties. Who is not involved in a situation is likely open to interpretation. Is a best friend uninvolved? What about some other confidant? When I read this I take it to mean revealing secrets or revealing personal matters to people who are outside of what those involve consider their confidants. After three days of searching for where or who "Weten" might be I am at a loss. I have yet to find any references to it. I will continue to look and hopefully in the near future there will be an answer for this Captain who came forth from Weten.

Confession 32. O Possessor of the Two Horns who came forth from Asyut, I have not been garrulous about matters. 

Asyut is mentioned here again, Lycopolis. The possessor of two horns is probably either Isis or Hathor. It is hard to tell considering that most of our copies of the Book of the Dead come from time periods where Isis and Hathor were, at times, merged into one goddess. Garrulous is a state of talking in a roundabout way. It also means not talking about trivial matters in ways that blow them out of proportion or make them out to be more important than they are.

Confession 33. O Nefertum who came forth from Memphis, I have not done wrong, I have not done evil.
Nefertum is the son of of Sekhmet and Ptah. He is the god of the lotus blossom and Memphis is sacred to him and his family. This is a repetition of not going against Ma'at. Evil and Wrong are general terms that in Egyptian text refer to breaking the Laws of Ma'at.

Confession 34. O He-Who-Does-Not-Allow-Survivors who came forth from Bursiris, I have not disputed/cursed the king.
Bursiris is the birth place of Osiris (and probably the rest of Nut's children as well.) He who does not allow survivors could mean one of two things... either Osiris in his seat at Judgement or Set as the head of the military or just as a nasty character. Disputed the king or cursed the king here refers to more than just bad language. It is more related to destruction of tombs and mummies, disturbing the dead and those things. The other thing this could refer to is "king" could be translated as "king of the gods" which could be Ra or Osiris.This could refer to cursing the gods or going against the order of the universe.

Confession 35. O He-Who-Acts-As-He-Wishes who came forth from Antinaiopolis, I have not waded in the water.

This city (which has the Greco-Roman name here. The Egyptian city is likely Her-Wer.) This location is sacred to Khnum, Bes and Hathor. This is probably Bes because of the title. Bes is known for acting outside the norms of the other deities. Khnum, being a god of creation could also be thought of as a god who acts as he wishes in his role as a creator. I have not waded in the water means entering the sacred water of a temple to which you are not devoted to or a sacred spring, oasis, etc which is sacred to those you are not devoted to. It is a ways of maintaining sacred space which the Egyptians had a very complex protocol for. (It look like I have yet another topic to address after these confessions. Ideas of sacred space in the Egyptian culture.)

Confessions 26-30

Confession 26. O Youth who came forth from the Double Scepter Nome, I have not been neglectful of truthful words.

Egyptian Elephantnose fish believed to be the sacred Oxyrhyncus

The Nome of the Double Scepter is the West Bank area around Oxyrhynchus (Per-Medjed in Egyptian). This is not too far south of the Faiyum. This area is sacred to Osiris as it was here that the Oxyrhynchus fish was discovered that had swallowed his penis. The youth could refer to Horus the child. However, Oxyrhynchus is also known for having a temple with many dog mummies which could suggest Anubis as he is also the son of Osiris. While the god may be confusing the confession is not. I have not neglected the truth. This means telling the truth, promoting the truth, seeking the truth and so on. It can also mean remaining ignorant or ignoring teachings, being uneducated, since the Egyptians saw education (provided the teacher was in Ma'at) as a form of truth.

Artifact of the Oxyrhynchus

Confession 27. O Dark One who came forth from the Darkness, I have not caused grief.
The dark one who came forth from the darkness is Nun. He is named with this title in more than one text. Grief has a broad meaning that encompasses distress, sorrow or mental suffering from loss. Basically, it is saying that the person confessing hasn't purposefully caused mental suffering of others. 

Confession 28. O He-Who-Brings-His-Offering who comes forth from Asyut, I have not been violent.
Asyut is Lycopolis in Upper Egypt. A city sacred to Anubis and Wepwawet. He who brings his offerings likely Wepwawet as he is an overseer of funerary offerings among other things. The confession... pretty straightforward, I'm not violent. However, it is important to realize that culturally Ancient Egyptians did not consider self defense or defense of one's home, land or country to be violence.

Confession 29. O Proclaimer of Voice who came forth from Wenis, I have not confounded truth.
Wenis is another name for Unas the deified pharaoh.However, it might mean Saqqara where he is buried as well. If it is Saqqara that is meant then the Proclaimer of Voice is probably one of the death deities. Most likely of them is Sobek who returns the voice of the deceased in the Duat. I have not confounded the truth is a statement of not masking, obscuring or otherwise twisting the truth. This confession is all about claiming to be "a straight shooter" to use an American turn of phrase.

Confession 30.O Possessor of Faces who came forth from Nedjefet, I have not been impatient.
Nedjefet is the nome of Egypt that contains Akhetaten's capitol Amarna.Since historical texts state that Amarna was built on a site where no other cities had been the god referenced must be either Aten or Thoth as they were the only gods sacred to this city. Possessor of Faces could relate Thoth's association with the moon. I have not been impatient means both the act defined by the word but also judging hastily or without information.

Confessions 21-25

Confession 21. O He-Who-Sees-What-He-Has-Brought who came forth from the House of Min, I have not (wrongly) copulated.
The god here is Khnum. He is a companion of the god Min in creation of life and fertility. Khnum is also often worshiped in temples dedicated to Min. The title refers to his formation of human bodies on his potter's wheel. He is the first to see what comes into being.The confession itself is most likely rape. Though with the Egyptian codes being settled in full disclosure and honesty it could also be read as not coercing anyone into sexual activity as well.

Confession 22. O Looker who comes forth from Per-Amsu, I have not polluted myself.
 Again we are talking about the Temple of Min (Per-Amsu). The looker is probably Min himself. I have not polluted myself  references a Egyptian thought on behavior and conduct. When a person acts in a manner that is against Ma'at those actions mar the heart forever. This is the pollution of self most likely referred to in this confession.

Confession 23. O He-Who-is-Over-the-Great-Ones who came forth from Amemt, I have not struck terror.
Amemt is a reference to Ammit or the place in which she lives. He who came forth from Ammit would be Anubis who in some myths cares for or is a companion to Ammit. Who is Over the Great Ones is Anubis' ability to resurrect through mummification.  I have not struck terror is fairly obvious. It means not terrorizing, bullying, harassing or otherwise using fear against others. 

Tomb depictions of the goddess Wadjet (Uadjet)
not to be confused with the Wadjet Eye of Ra/Horus.

Confession 24. O Demolisher who came forth from Kesiu, I have not committed offense.
Kensiu may be the city Per-Wadjet or a city close by. This was the area sacred to Wadjet. She was the serpent goddess who recorded history and decorated the pharaonic crown. Committing offense here is more about forgetting one's manners or etiquette. It is important to remember this is purposeful disregard. Accidentally using the wrong spoon in a formal dinner is not an offense unless of course it was done on purpose.

25. O Proclaimer of Speech who came forth from Weryt, I have not been hot.
Weryt means "The great lady". The Proclaimer of Speech who came forth from the great lady could be any number of gods or goddesses. Though, the title Weryt with the spelling given in glyphs is a name of Hathor. If we define coming forth as birthed by it limits the choices. This narrows down our choices to Ity, god of music or Hat Mehit, goddess/wife of diplomacy. Given that this Confession is about controlling one's temper, to me, Hat Mehit makes the most sense as the goddess who would be the "Proclaimer of Speech" and related to controlling one's temper.